سخنان حکیمانه با ترجمه انگلیسی

سخنان حکیمانه با ترجمه انگلیسی

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شعر انگلیسی

قالب های شعری

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پیدایش زبان

پیدایش زبان

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ساخت شناسی واژگانی

ساخت شناسی واژگانی

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زبانشناسی

ساخت شناسی واژگانی

رمان

رمان

 

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سازه های داستان کوتاه

سازه های داستان کوتاه

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قرون وسطی و دوران طلایی (1485 - 1660)

قرون وسطی و دوران طلایی (1485 - 1660)

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دوره های ادبی در ادبیات بریتانیا

دوره های ادبی در ادبیات بریتانیا

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ادبیات انگلیسی کهن

 

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دسته:انگلیسی میانه: 1485-1066 میلادی

دسته:انگلیسی میانه: 1485-1066 میلادی

ادبیات انگلیسی میانه

(1,817) دیدگاه

نوشته شده توسط admin, 4 آوریل 2009

انگلیسی میانه (1485 – 1066)

نفوذ گسترده ی زبان و ادبیات فرانسوی، مهمترین ویژگی این دوره است. از زمان حمله ی نورمان ها در سال 1066 تا قرن چهاردهم، «فرانسه» زبان شعر و ادبیات در کشور انگلستان بود و «لاتین» هم جایگاه خود بعنوان زبان علمی و دا.....................................

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تشابهات برجسته بين آبراهام لينكولن و جان اف كندي

تشابهات برجسته بين آبراهام لينكولن و جان اف كندي

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منابع کارشناسی ارشد کلیه رشته های زبان انگلیسی

منابع کارشناسی ارشد کلیه رشته های زبان انگلیسی

 

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منابع کارشناسی ارشد کلیه رشته های زبان انگلیسی

منابع کارشناسی ارشد کلیه رشته های زبان انگلیسی

 

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Idioms

Idioms

 

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اصطلاحات مربوط به رنگ ها

اصطلاحات مربوط به رنگ ها

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ترجمه هاي مختلف انگليسي ( بسم ا... الرحمن الرحيم )

ترجمه هاي مختلف انگليسي ( بسم ا... الرحمن الرحيم )

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علایم نقطه گذاری انگلیسی در یک نگاه

علایم نقطه گذاری انگلیسی در یک نگاه

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چند جمله ی انگلیسی در مورد مامان و بابا

چند جمله ی انگلیسی در مورد مامان و بابا

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معادل انگليسي وزارتخانه ها

معادل انگليسي وزارتخانه ها

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سخنان حکیمانه با ترجمه انگلیسی

_{وقتی که نور شدیدتر است سایه ها عمیق ترند}

_{When there is much light, The shadow is deep}

_Goethe

_********

_{از قضاوت کردن دست بکش تا آرامش را تجربه کنی}

 _{Stop judging others in order to meet composure}

_{Deepak Chopra}

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_{در شگفتم از مردمی که خود زیر شلاق ظلم زندگی می کنند}

 _{و بر حسینی می گریند که آزاد زیست}

_{I am surprised by the people who they themselves live under the lash of injustice
and cry for "Husayn" who lived free}

Dr. Ali Shariati
*************

_{پيروزی آن نيست که هرگز زمين نخوری، آن است که بعداز هر زمين خوردنی برخيزی}

 _{Victory is not never to fall, It is to rise after every fall}

_{Mahatma Gandhi}

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_{در بين تمامی مردم تنها عقل است که به عدالت تقسيم شده}

 _{زيرا همه فکر می‌کنند به اندازه کافی عاقلند}

_{It is only intelligence that is divided equally between people
  because everybody thinks he/she is enough wise}

_{René Descartes}
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_{بی سوادان قرن 21 کسانی نیستند که نمی توانند بخوانند و بنویسند}

 _{بلکه کسانی هستند که نمی توانند بیاموزند،}

_{آموخته های کهنه رادور بریزند ،ودوباره بیاموزند.}

_{The illiterates of The 21st century are not those who can't write and read
but those who are not able to learn, get rid of old learnings, and learn again}

_{Alvin Toffler}

معادل انگليسي وزارتخانه ها

كابينه دولتی در انگليسی اين ليستی از وزارت های دولت است كه معادل انگليسی آنها هم درج شده است Ministry of Health, Treatment and Medical Training وزارت بهداشت درمان و آموزش پزشکی Ministry of Education وزارت آموزش و پرورش Ministry of Islamic Guidance وزارت ارشاد اسلامی Ministry of Economy and Finance وزارت اقتصاد و دارایی Ministry of Information وزارت اطلاعات Ministry of Cooperation وزارت تعاون Ministry of Justice وزارت دادگستری Ministry of Roads and Transportation وزارت راه و ترابری Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs وزارت کار و امور اجتماعی Ministry of the Interior وزارت کشور Ministry of Oil وزارت نفت Ministry of Commerce وزارت بازرگانی Ministry of Industry

شعري زيبا قبل از مرگ

This poem was written by a terminally ill young girl in a New York Hospital این شعر را این دختربسیار جوان در حالی که آخرین روزهای زندگی اش را سپری می کند در بیمارستان نیویورک نگاشته استIt was sent by و آنرا یکی از پزشکان بیمارستان فرستاده است. تقاضا داریم مطلب بعد از شعر را نیز به دقت بخوانید a medical doctor - Make sure to read what is in the closing statement AFTER THE POEM. SLOW DANCE رقص آرام Have you ever watched kids آیا تا به حال به کودکان نگریسته اید On a merry-go-round? در حالیکه به بازی "چرخ چرخ" مشغولند؟ Or listened to the rain و یا به صدای باران گوش فرا داده اید، Slapping on the ground? آن زمان که قطراتش به زمین برخورد می کند؟ Ever followed a butterfly's erratic flight? تا بحال بدنبال پروانه ای دویده اید، آن زمان که نامنظم و بی هدف به چپ و راست پرواز می کند؟ Or gazed at the sun into the fading night? یا به خورشید رنگ پریده خیره گشته اید، آن زمان که در مغرب فرو می رود؟ You better slow down. کمی آرام تر حرکت کنید Don't dance so fast. اینقدر تند و سریع به رقص درنیایید Time is short. زمان کوتاه است The music won't last موسیقی بزودی پایان خواهد یافت Do you run through each day On the fly? آیا روزها را شتابان پشت سر می گذارید؟ When you ask How are you? آنگاه که از کسی می پرسید حالت چطور است، Do you hear the reply? آیا پاسخ سوال خود را می شنوید؟ When the day is done هنگامی که روز به پایان می رسد Do you lie in your bed آیا در رختخواب خود دراز می کشید With the next hundred chores و اجازه می دهید که صدها کار ناتمام بیهوده و روزمره Running through your head? در کله شما رژه روند؟ You'd better slow down سرعت خود را کم کنید. کم تر شتاب کنید. Don't dance so fast. اینقدر تند و سریع به رقص در نیایید. Time is short. زمان کوتاه است. The music won't last. موسیقی دیری نخواهد پائید Ever told your child, آیا تا بحال به کودک خود گفته اید، We'll do it tomorrow? "فردا این کار را خواهیم کرد" And in your haste, و آنچنان شتابان بوده اید Not see his که نتوانید غم او را در چشمانش ببینید؟ sorrow? Ever lost touch, تا بحال آیا بدون تاثری Let a good friendship die اجازه داده اید دوستی ای به پایان رسد، Cause you never had time فقط بدان سبب که هرگز وقت کافی ندارید؟ or call and say,'Hi' آیا هرگز به کسی تلفن زده اید فقط به این خاطر که به او بگویید: دوست من، سلام؟ You'd better slow down. حال کمی سرعت خود را کم کنید. کمتر شتاب کنید. Don't dance so fast. اینقدر تند وسریع به رقص درنیایید. Time is short. زمان کوتاه است. The music won't last.موسیقی دیری نخواهد پایید. When you run so fast to get somewhere آن زمان که برای رسیدن به مکانی چنان شتابان می دوید، You miss half the fun of getting there. نیمی از لذت راه را بر خود حرام می کنید. When you worry and hurry through your day, آنگاه که روز خود را با نگرانی و عجله بسر می رسانید، It is like an unopened gift.... گویی هدیه ای را ناگشوده به کناری می نهید... Thrown away. Life is not a race. زندگی که یک مسابقه دو نیست! Do take it slower کمی آرام گیرید Hear the music به موسیقی گوش بسپارید، Before the song is over. پیش از آنکه آوای آن به پایان رسد. FORWARDED E-MAILS ARE TRACKED TO OBTAIN THE TOTAL COUNT

Ancient Olympic Games

Ancient Olympic Games

According to Hippias of Elis, who compiled a list of Olympic victors c.400 BC, at first the only Olympic event was a 200-yard dash, called a stadium. This was the only event until 724 BC, when a two-stadia race was added. Two years later the 24-stadia event began, and in 708 the pentathlon was added and wrestling became part of the games. This pentathlon, a five-event match consisted of running, wrestling, leaping, throwing the discus, and hurling the javelin. In time boxing, a chariot race, and other events were included.

The victors of these early games were crowned with wreaths from a sacred olive tree that grew behind the temple of Zeus. According to tradition this tree was planted by Hercules (Heracles), founder of the games. The winners marched around the grove to the accompaniment of a flute while admirers chanted songs written by a prominent poet.

The Olympic Games were held without interruptions in ancient Greece. The games were even held in 480 BC during the Persian Wars, and coincided with the Battle of Thermopylae. Although the Olympic games were never suspended, the games of 364 BC were not considered Olympic since the Arkadians had captured the sanctuary and reorganized the games.

After the Battle of Chaironeia in 338 BC, Philip of Makedon and his son Alexander gained control over the Greek city-states. They erected the Philippeion (a family memorial) in the sanctuary, and held political meetings at Olympia during each Olympiad. In 146 BC, the Romans gained control of Greece and, therefore, of the Olympic games. In 85 BC, the Roman general Sulla plundered the sanctuary to finance his campaign against Mithridates. Sulla also moved the 175th Olympiad (80 BC) to Rome.

The games were held every four years from 776 BC to 393 AD, when they were abolished by the Christian Byzantine Emperor Theodosius I. The ancient Olympic Games lasted for 1170 years.

The successful campaign to revive the Olympics was started in France by Baron Pierre de Coubertin late in the 19th century. The first of the modern Summer Games opened on Sunday, March 24, 1896, in Athens, Greece. The first race was won by an American college student named James Connolly.

The Olympic Games begun at Olympia in Greece in 776 BC. The Greek calendar was based on the Olympiad, the four-year period between games. The games were staged in the wooded valley of Olympia in Elis. Here the Greeks erected statues and built temples in a grove dedicated to Zeus, supreme among the gods. The greatest shrine was an ivory and gold statue of Zeus. Created by the sculptor Phidias, it was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Scholars have speculated that the games in 776 BC were not the first games, but rather the first games held after they were organized into festivals held every four years as a result of a peace agreement between the city-states of Elis and Pisa. The Eleans traced the founding of the Olympic games to their King Iphitos, who was told by the Delphi Oracle to plant the olive tree from which the victors' wreaths were made.

انقلاب اسلامی ایران

انقلاب اسلامي ايران

The Islamic Revolution, 1978-79   The chain of events that ended in February 1979 with the overthrow of the Pahlavi regime and the foundation of the Islamic Republic began with the death in Najaf on October 23, 1977 of Hajj Sayyid Mustafa Khomeini, unexpectedly and under mysterious circumstances. This death was widely attributed to the Iranian security police, SAVAK, and protest meetings took place in Qum, Tehran, Yazd, Mashhad, Shiraz, and Tabriz. Imam Khomeini himself, with the equanimity he customarily displayed in the face of personal loss, described the death of his son as one of the “hidden favors” (altaf-i khafiya) of God, and advised the Muslims of Iran to show fortitude and hope.[28]   The esteem in which Imam Khomeini was held and the reckless determination of the Shah’s regime to undermine that esteem were demonstrated once again on January 7, 1978 when an article appeared in the semi-official newspaper Ittila’at attacking him in scurrilous terms as a traitor working together with foreign enemies of the country. The next day a furious mass protest took place in Qum; it was suppressed by the security forces with heavy loss of life. This was the first in a series of popular confrontations that, gathering momentum throughout 1978, soon turned into a vast revolutionary movement, demanding the overthrow of the Pahlavi regime and the installation of an Islamic government.   The martyrs of Qum were commemorated forty days later with demonstrations and shop closures in every major city of Iran. Particularly grave were the disturbances in Tabriz, which ended only after more than 100 people had been killed by the Shah’s troops. On March 29, the fortieth day after the killings in Tabriz was marked by a further round of demonstrations, in some fifty-five Iranian cities; this time the heaviest casualties occurred in Yazd, where security forces opened fire on a gathering in the main mosque. In early May, it was Tehran itself that saw the principal violence; armored columns appeared on the streets for the first time since June 1963 in order to contain the trend to revolution.   In June, the Shah found it politic to make a number of superficial concessions - such as the repeal of the “imperial calendar” -to the forces opposing him, but repression also continued. When the government lost control of Isfahan on August 17, the army assaulted the city and killed hundreds of unarmed demonstrators. Two days later, 410 people were burned to death behind the locked doors of a cinema in Abadan, and the government was plausibly held responsible. On ‘Id al-fitr, which that year fell on September 4, marches took place in all major cities, with an estimated total of four million participants. The demand was loudly voiced for the abolition of monarchy and the foundation of an Islamic government under the leadership of Imam Khomeini. Faced with the mounting tide of revolution, the Shah decreed martial law and forbade further demonstrations. On September 9, a crowd gathered at the Maydan-i Zhala (subsequently renamed Maydan-i Shuhada’) in Tehran was attacked by troops that had blocked all exits from the square, and some 2000 people were killed at this location alone. Another 2000 were killed elsewhere in Tehran by American-supplied military helicopters hovering overhead. This day of massacre, which came to be known as Black Friday, marked the point of no return. Too much blood had been spilt for the Shah to have any hope of survival, and the army itself began to tire of the task of slaughter.   As these events were unfolding in Iran, Imam Khomeini delivered a whole series of messages and speeches, which reached his homeland not only in printed form but also increasingly on tape cassettes. His voice could be heard congratulating the people for their sacrifices, denouncing the Shah in categorical fashion as a criminal, and underlining the responsibility of the United States for the killings and the repression. (Ironically, US President Carter had visited Tehran on New Year’s Eve 1977 and lauded the Shah for creating “an island of stability in one of the more troubled areas of the world.”[29]   As the façade of stability dissolved, the United States continued its military and political support of the Shah uninterrupted by anything but the most superficial hesitation). Most importantly, the Imam recognized that a unique juncture had been reached in Iranian history, that a genuinely revolutionary momentum had come into being which if dissipated would be impossible to rebuild. He therefore warned against any tendency to compromise or to be deceived by the sporadic conciliatory gestures of the Shah. Thus on the occasion of ‘Id al-Fitr, when mass demonstrations had passed off with deceptive peacefulness in Tehran, he issued the following declaration: “Noble people of Iran! Press forward with your movement and do not slacken for a minute, as I know full well you will not! Let no one imagine that after the blessed month of Ramadan his God-given duties have changed. These demonstrations that break down tyranny and advance the goals of Islam are a form of worship that is not confined to certain months or days, for the aim is to save the nation, to enact Islamic justice, and to establish a form of divine government based on justice.”[30]   In one of the numerous miscalculations that marked his attempts to destroy the revolution, the Shah decided to seek the deportation of Imam Khomeini from Iraq, on the assumption, no doubt, that once removed from the prestigious location of Najaf and its proximity to Iran, his voice would somehow be silenced. The agreement of the Iraqi government was obtained at a meeting between the Iraqi and Iranian foreign ministers in New York, and on September 24, 1978, the Imam’s house in Najaf was surrounded by troops. He was informed that his continued residence in Iraq was contingent on his abandoning political activity, a condition he was sure to reject. On October 3, he left Iraq for Kuwait, but was refused entry at the border. After a period of hesitation in which Algeria, Lebanon and Syria were considered as possible destinations, Imam Khomeini embarked for Paris, on the advice of his second son, Hajj Sayyid Ahmad Khomeini, who by now had joined him. Once arrived in Paris, the Imam took up residence in the suburb of Neauphle-le-Chateau in a house that had been rented for him by Iranian exiles in France.   Residence in a non-Muslim land was no doubt experienced by Imam Khomeini as irksome, and in the declaration he issued from Neauphle-le-Chateau on October 11, 1978, the fortieth day after the massacres of Black Friday, he announced his intention of moving to any Muslim country that assured him freedom of speech.[31] No such assurance ever materialized. In addition, his forced removal from Najaf increased popular anger in Iran still further. It was, however, the Shah’s regime that turned out to be the ultimate loser from this move. Telephonic communications with Tehran were far easier from Paris than they had been from Najaf, thanks to the Shah’s determination to link Iran with the West in every possible way, and the messages and instructions the Imam issued flowed forth uninterrupted from the modest command center he established in a small house opposite his residence. Moreover, a host of journalists from across the world now made their way to France, and the image and the words of the Imam soon became a daily feature in the world’s media.   In Iran meanwhile, the Shah was continuously reshaping his government. First he brought in as prime minister Sharif-Imami, an individual supposedly close to conservative elements among the ‘ulama. Then, on November 6, he formed a military government under General Ghulam-Riza Azhari, a move explicitly recommended by the United States. These political maneuverings had essentially no effect on the progress of the revolution. On November 23, one week before the beginning of Muharram, the Imam issued a declaration in which he likened the month to “a divine sword in the hands of the soldiers of Islam, our great religious leaders, and respected preachers, and all the followers of Imam Husayn, Sayyid al-shuhada’.” They must, he continued, “make maximum use of it; trusting in the power of God, they must tear out the remaining roots of this tree of oppression and treachery.” As for the military government, it was contrary to the Shari’ah and opposition to it a religious duty.[32]   Vast demonstrations unfurled across Iran as soon as Muharram began. Thousands of people donned white shrouds as a token of readiness for martyrdom and were cut down as they defied the nightly curfew. On Muharram 9, a million people marched in Tehran demanding the overthrow of the monarchy, and the following day, ‘Ashura, more than two million demonstrators approved by acclamation a seventeen-point declaration of which the most important demand was the formation of an Islamic government headed by the Imam. Killings by the army continued, but military discipline began to crumble, and the revolution acquired an economic dimension with the proclamation of a national strike on December 18. With his regime crumbling, the Shah now attempted to co-opt secular, liberal-nationalist politicians in order to forestall the foundation of an Islamic government. On January 3, 1979, Shahpur Bakhtiyar of the National Front (Jabha-yi Milli) was appointed prime minister to replace General Azhari, and plans were drawn up for the Shah to leave the country for what was advertised as a temporary absence. On January 12, the formation of a nine-member regency council was announced; headed by Jalal al-Din Tihrani, an individual proclaimed to have religious credentials, it was to represent the Shah’s authority in his absence. None of these maneuvers distracted the Imam from the goal now increasingly within reach. The very next day after the formation of the regency council, he proclaimed from Neauphle-le-Chateau the formation of the Council of the Islamic Revolution (Shaura-yi Inqilab-i Islami), a body entrusted with establishing a transitional government to replace the Bakhtiyar administration. On January 16, amid scenes of feverish popular rejoicing, the Shah left Iran for exile and death.   What remained now was to remove Bakhtiyar and prevent a military coup d’état enabling the Shah to return. The first of these aims came closer to realization when Sayyid Jalal al-Din Tihrani came to Paris in order to seek a compromise with Imam Khomeini. He refused to see him until he resigned from the regency council and pronounced it illegal. As for the military, the gap between senior generals, unconditionally loyal to the Shah, and the growing number of officers and recruits sympathetic to the revolution, was constantly growing. When the United States dispatched General Huyser, commander of NATO land forces in Europe, to investigate the possibility of a military coup, he was obliged to report that it was pointless even to consider such a step.   Conditions now seemed appropriate for Imam Khomeini to return to Iran and preside over the final stages of the revolution. After a series of delays, including the military occupation of Mehrabad airport from January 24 to 30, the Imam embarked on a chartered airliner of Air France on the evening of January 31 and arrived in Tehran the following morning. Amid unparalleled scenes of popular joy - it has been estimated that more than ten million people gathered in Tehran to welcome the Imam back to his homeland – he proceeded to the cemetery of Bihisht-i Zahra to the south of Tehran where the martyrs of the revolution lay buried. There he decried the Bakhtiyar administration as the “last feeble gasp of the Shah’s regime” and declared his intention of appointing a government that would “punch Bakhtiyar’s government in the mouth.”[33] The appointment of the provisional Islamic government the Imam had promised came on February 5. Its leadership was entrusted to Mahdi Bazargan, an individual who had been active for many years in various Islamic organizations, most notably the Freedom Movement (Nahzat-i Azadi). The decisive confrontation came less than a week later. Faced with the progressive disintegration of the armed forces and the desertion of many officers and men, together with their weapons, to the Revolutionary Committees that were springing up everywhere, Bakhtiyar decreed a curfew in Tehran to take effect at 4 p.m. on February 10. Imam Khomeini ordered that the curfew should be defied and warned that if elements in the army loyal to the Shah did not desist from killing the people, he would issue a formal fatwa for jihad.[34] The following day the Supreme Military Council withdrew its support from Bakhtiyar, and on February 12, 1979, all organs of the regime, political, administrative, and military, finally collapsed. The revolution had triumphed.   Clearly no revolution can be regarded as the work of a single man, nor can its causes be interpreted in purely ideological terms; economic and social developments had helped to prepare the ground for the revolutionary movement of 1978-79. There was also marginal involvement in the revolution, particularly during its final stages when its triumph seemed assured, by secular, liberal-nationalist, and leftist elements. But there can be no doubting the centrality of Imam Khomeini’s role and the integrally Islamic nature of the revolution he led. Physically removed from his countrymen for fourteen years, he had an unfailing sense of the revolutionary potential that had surfaced and was able to mobilize the broad masses of the Iranian people for the attainment of what seemed to many inside the country (including his chosen premier, Bazargan) a distant and excessively ambitious goal. His role pertained, moreover, not merely to moral inspiration and symbolic leadership; he was also the operational leader of the revolution. Occasionally he accepted advice on details of strategy from persons in Iran, but he took all key decisions himself, silencing early on all advocates of compromise with the Shah. It was the mosques that were the organizational units of the revolution and mass prayers, demonstrations and martyrdom that were - until the very last stage - its principal weapons.   Notes:

  

به‌نام‌خدا

شماره طرح درس: 1 مدت اجرا: 50 دقيقه

پايه تحصيلي: اول راهنمايي محل اجرا: مدرسه راهنمايي

موضوع درس: آيا مي‌دانيد ايران در كجا واقع شده‌است؟ تعداد دانش‌آموزان: 30 نفر

تاريخ اجرا: /7/83 مجري: خانم

هدف كلي: آشنايي با موقعيت ايران در جهان
هدف ورودي (رفتار ورودي): سؤال از پيش دانسته‌هاي دانش‌آموزان
هدف‌هاي جزئي: دانش‌آموزان فرا مي‌گيرند: تعريف: قاره را تعريف: اقيانوس را موقعيت ايران نسبت به خط استوا موقعيت ايران نسبت به نصف‌النهار مبدأ موقعيت و وسعت قاره‌ي آسيا را شناخت موقعيت ايران در جهان و آسيا آگاهي از موقعيت ايران نسبت به خطوط فرضي استوا و نصف‌النهار مبدأ اطلاعاتي در مورد وسعت و ميزان جمعيت ايران وسعت و ميزان جمعيت ايران نسبت به كشورهاي همسايه
هدف‌هاي رفتاري: دانش‌آموزان پس از پايان درس بايد بتوانند: قاره‌ها و اقيانوس‌هاي جهان را نام ببرند و روي نقشه نشان دهند. موقعيت جغرافيايي ايران را روي يك كره‌ي جغرافيايي تعيين كنند. وسعت و ميزان جمعيت ايران را بيان كنند. با استفاده از نقشه‌ي جهان‌نما وسعت ايران را با كشورهاي همسايه و كشورهاي ديگر مقايسه كند. خطوط فرضي استوا و نصف‌النهار مبدأ را روي نقشه و كره‌ي جغرفيايي نشان دهد. موقعيت ايران را در قاره‌ي آسيا روي نقشه نشان دهد. اقيانوس‌هاي اطراف قاره‌ي آسيا را روي نقشه نشان دهد. قاره‌هاي مختلف را روي نقشه از نظر وسعت با هم مقايسه كند.
محتوي: صفحات 2 و 3 از كتاب جغرافياي اول راهنمايي
شيوه‌ (روش تدريس): روش فعال «ياران در يادگيري» يا «دريافت مفهوم»
رسانه: تخته‌سياه، گچ، نقشه، كره‌ي جغرافيايي
جدول زمان‌بندي	فعاليت دانش‌آموز	فعاليت معلم
5 دقيقه	دانش‌آموزان به‌صورت گروهي در جاي خود نشسته و وسايل خود را آماده مي‌كنند.	«روش ياران در يادگيري» پس از انجام حضور و غياب و ارائه‌ي توضيحي مختصر درباره‌ي روش كار، بچه‌ها به‌صورت گروهي در مجاي خود نشسته و پس از نوشتن عنوان درس بر روي تابلو و گرفتن زمان، كار را در كلاس آغاز مي‌كنيم.
5 دقيقه	قاره‌هاي جهان: آسيا، آفريقا، اروپا، آمريكاي شمالي و جنوبي، اقيانوسيه و استراليا.   بزرگ‌ترين قاره‌ي آسيا است.	ارزشيابي تشخيصي: قاره‌هاي جهان كدامند؟ بزرگ‌ترين قاره‌ي جهان كدام است؟
30 دقيقه	با استفاده از نقشه و كره‌ي جغرافيايي قاره‌ها و اقيانوس‌هاي روي زمني را پيدا مي‌كند.   اقيانوس‌ها و قاره‌ها را از نظر وستعت با هم مقايسه مي‌كند.   نام قاره‌ها و اقيانوس‌ها را به ذهن مي‌سپارد.   خط استوا و نصف‌النهار مبدأ را روي كره و نقشه پيدا مي‌كند.   نقشه‌ي ايران را در قاره‌ي آسيا پيدا مي‌كند.   موقعيت ايران در در جنوب‌غربي آسيا مشاهده مي‌كند.   ايران را از نظر وسعت با كشورهاي همسايه و كشورهاي ديگر جهان مقايسه مي‌كند.   درس را براي هم توضيح مي‌دهند.   فعاليت‌هاي صفحه‌ي 3 را جواب داده و هر كدام از گروه‌ها سعي مي‌كنند كه در مدت كوتاه‌تري فعاليت خود را انجام دهند.	تعيين نقطه‌ي شروع و ارائه‌ي مطلب: از بچه‌ها مي‌خواهيم كه به‌صورت گروهي نشسته و هر فرد و گروه صفحه‌ي 2 را مطالعه نموده و فعاليت‌هاي صفحه‌ي 3 را جواب داده و سپس اگر اشكالي در حل فعاليت‌ها داشتند با توضيح براي يكديگر به رفع آن بپردازند. با توجه به اينكه مطالبي در مورد قاره‌ي آسيا و اقيانوس‌هاي اطراف و كشور ايران در سال‌هاي گذشته در كتاب‌هاي درسي بيان شده بود دانش‌آموزان كمتر دچار مشكل شده و مي‌توانند فعاليت‌هاي صفحه‌ي 3 را با بحث گروهي انجام دهند و اگر اشكالي داشتند به‌صورت گروهي و در زمان مشخص رفع كنند. پس از اتمام زمان تعيين شده سؤالاتي از هر يك از اعضاي گروه‌ها مي‌پرسيم تا براي بچه‌ها توضيح دهند. پس از توضيحات دانش‌آموزان، خود معلم مروري بر كل درس مي‌كنند و براي تفهيم بيشتر مطالب به دانش‌آموزان از نقشه و كره‌ي جغرافيايي استفاده مي‌كند و همچنين از خود دانش‌آوزان استفاده مي‌شود و براي اينكه به هدف خود برسد از يكي از گروه‌ها مي‌خواهد كه بيايد و خلاصه‌اي از درس را براي ديگران بازگو كند.
جدول زمان‌بندي	فعاليت دانش‌آموز	فعاليت معلم
3 دقيقه	دقت	جمع‌بندي: بزرگ‌ترين قاره‌ي جهان، قاره‌ي آسيا است و ايران در جنوب غربي آن قرار دارد. ايران نسبت به خط استوا در نيم‌كره‌ي شمالي و نسبت به نصف‌النهار مبدأ در نيم‌كره‌ي شرقي زمين واقع شده است.
5 دقيقه	دانش‌آموزان به سؤالات داده شده پاسخ داده و اگر 85 درصد از دانش‌آموزان به سؤالات پاسخ صحيح دهند معلم به هدف آموزشي درس رسيده است.	ارزشيابي پاياني: از كليه‌ي دانش‌آموزان سؤالات زير به‌صورت امتحان روي برگه مي‌گيريم. وسيع‌ترين قاره‌ي جهان كدام است؟ ايران در كدام قاره و كدام جهت آن قاره واقع شده است؟ خط استوا و نصف‌النهار مبدأ را روي شكل نشان دهيد.
2 دقيقه	دانش‌آموزان يادداشت مي‌كنند.	تعيين تكليف: مطالعه‌ي دروس داده شده. با توجه به نقشه‌ي صفحه‌ي 2 (به‌ روش كتاب باز) موقعيت آسيا، ايران و اقيانوس‌هاي اطراف آسيا را روي نقشه مشخص كنيد.
جدول زمان‌بندي	فعاليت دانش‌آموز	فعاليت معلم
5 دقيقه	دانش‌آموزان به‌صورت گروهي در جاي خود نشسته و وسايل خود را آماده مي‌كنند.	«روش دريافت مفهوم»: پس از انجام حضور و غياب و ارائه‌ي توضيحاتي مختصر درباره‌ي روش كار، بچه‌ها به‌صورت گروهي در جاي خود نشسته و پس از نوشتن عنوان درس بر روي تابلو و گرفتن زمان، كار در كلاس آغاز مي‌شود.
5 دقيقه	قاره‌هاي جهان: آسيا، آفريقا، اروپا، آمريكاي شمالي و جنوبي، اقيانوسيه و استراليا بزرگ‌ترين قاره‌هاي جهان آسيا است. ... .	ارزشيابي تشخيصي: قاره‌هاي جهان كدامند؟ بزرگ‌ترين قاره‌ي جهان كدام است؟
جدول زمان‌بندي	فعاليت دانش‌آموز	فعاليت معلم
	دانش‌آموزان با توجه و دقت آماده‌ي پاسخ‌گويي مي‌شوند.         دانش‌آموزان فقط با دقت مشاهده مي‌كنند ولي در اين مرحله در اين مرحله پاسخي نمي‌دهند.   دانش‌آموزاني كه مطلب را حدس زده‌اند دست مي‌گيرند. به ترتيبي كه در جدول بيان نموده‌ايم دانش‌آموزان پاسخ مي‌دهند.	تعيين نقطه‌ي شروع و ارائه‌ي مطلب: بچه‌ها من چيزي در ذهن دارم به مطالبي كه بيان مي‌كنم دقت كنيد و حدس بزنيد كه آن چيست؟ من مطالب مورد نظرم را در دو ستون آري و خير مطرح مي‌كنم اگر در ستوي آراي بيايد مثالي از آن چيزي است كه در ذهن من است و اگر در ستون خير ارائه گردد مربوط به آن نيست. بچه‌ها شما خوب دقت كنيد و پس از حدس آن، صبر كنيد هر وقت از شما خواسته شد، دست بگيريد و پاسخ دهيد. مرحله‌ي اول: خير آري كشور اقيانوس - اقيانوس اطلس (نزديك) - - قاره - خوب تا اينجا چند نفر حدس زدند، لطفاً دست بگيريد. معلم يكي يكي تعداد فراگيراني را كه دست گرفته‌اند را مي‌شمارد اگر تعداد آنها نسبت به كل دانش‌آموزان قابل ملاحظه باشد مرحله‌ي دوم را شروع مي‌كند وگرنه بايد باز هم با ارائه‌ي مثال‌هاي ديگري مرحله‌ي اول را ادامه دهد. خير آري - - عبور نصف‌النهار مبدأ نزديك به اقيانوس هند نزديك به اقيانوس آرام - مرحله‌ي دوم: جدولي مانند جدول بالا پاي تخته با دو ستون آري و خير رسم مي‌كنيم و سپس مثال‌هاي خود را يكي يكي بيان مي‌كنيم تا دانش‌آموزان تعيين كنند كه جاي هر كدام از جواب‌هايشان در كدام ستون است.	مراحل اجرا (شرح چگونگي ارائه‌ي محتوي)
جدول زمان‌بندي	فعاليت دانش‌آموز	فعاليت معلم
30 دقيقه	خط استوا از آنجا عبور مي‌كند؟ آري   بيشترين وسعت را دارد؟ آري   ايران در اين قاره واقع شده است؟ آري   قاره‌ي آسيا نيست؟	مرحله‌ي سوم: از خود دانش‌آموزان مي‌خواهيم تا خود مثال‌هايي ارائه دهند و مكان آن در جدول آري و خير را تعيين كنند. خير آري - - - - عبور خط استوا وسعت خيلي زياد ايران آسيا در اين مرحله دانش‌آموزان حدس زدند كه مفهوم مورد نظر ما قاره‌ي آسيا است. بنابراين از ادامه‌ي جدول صرف‌نظر مي‌كنيم و توضيحاتي در مورد قاره‌ي آسيا و موقعيت ايران در اين قاره را روي نقشه براي دانش‌آموزان نشان مي‌دهيم و وسعت آسيا را با ساير قاره‌ها روي نقشه و كره مقايسه مي‌كنيم.
3 دقيقه	دقت	جمع‌بندي: بزرگ‌ترين قاره‌ي جهان، قاره‌ي آسيا است و ايران در جنوب‌غربي آن قرار دارد. ايران نسبت به خط استوا در نيمكره‌ي شمالي و نسبت به نصف‌النهار مبدأ در نيمكره‌ي شرقي زمين واقع شده است. اقيانوس‌هاي اطراف آن عبارتند از: منجمد شمالي در شمال، آرام در شرق، هند در جنوب و ... .
5 دقيقه	دانش‌آموزان به سؤالات داده شده پاسخ داده و اگر 85 ذدرصد از دانش‌آموزان به سؤالات پاسخ صحيح دهند معلم به هدف آموزشي درسي رسيده است.	ارزشيابي پاياني: از كليه‌ي دانش‌آموزان سؤالات زير به‌صورت امتحان روي برگه مي‌گيريم:   وسيع‌ترين قاره‌ي جهان كدام است؟   ايران در كدام قاره و كدام جهت آن قاره واقع شده است؟   اقيانوس‌هاي اطراف قاره‌ي آسيا را با ذكر جهت بنويسيد.   خط استوا و نصف‌النهار مبدأ را روي شكل نشان دهيد.
2 دقيقه	دانش‌آموزان يادداشت مي‌كنند.	تعيين تكليف:   مطالعه‌ي دروس داده شده.   با توجه به نقشه‌ي صفحه‌ي 2 «به روش كتاب باز» موقعيت آسيا، ايران و اقيانوس‌هاي اطراف آسيا را روي نقشه مشخص كنيد.

 

چطور با خواندن، انگليسي خود را تقويت کنيم؟

 

سريع خواني

معمولاً افراد هنگام مطالعه‌ي يک متن (مثلاً يک روزنامه) سعي مي‌کنند با حداقل تلاش و حداکثر سرعت به مضمون اصلي مطلب پي ببرند. شايد بتوان اين استراتژي را «سريع خواني» ناميد. در اين استراتژي مغز تلاش مي‌کند تا جاي ممکن کلمات کمتري را بخواند و تنها کسري از ثانيه روي هر کلمه توقف مي‌کند. ممکن است زبان‌آموزان نيز اين استراتژي را براي خواندن متون انگليسي بکار بگيرند.

حال بايد ديد اين استراتژي (سريع خواني) چه ويژگيهايي دارد:

• کلمات گرامري از قبيل حروف اضافه و حروف تعريف ديده نمي‌شوند. چشم تنها روي کلماتي از قبيل اسمها، فعلها، صفات و قيدهاي اصلي توقف مي‌کند.

• وجوه کلمه ديده نمي‌شود (مانند قسمت دوم يا سوم بودن يک فعل).

• به املاي دقيق کلمه دقت نمي‌شود. دانسته شده است که مغز  کل کلمه را از روي شکل آن تشخيص مي‌دهد و آن را بصورت حرف به حرف تجزيه و تحليل نمي‌کند.

• به کلمات مشکلي که براي درک معني کلمه ضروري نيستند توجه نمي‌شود (براي صرفه جويي در وقت به ديکشنري مراجعه نمي‌شود).

 

البته «سريع خواني» روش بسيار خوبي براي صرفه‌جويي در وقت است. اما مشکل اينجاست که شما براي درک يک مطلب به کلمات گرامري خيلي نياز نداريد، اما براي ساختن يک متن يا مطلب (هنگام نوشتن يا صحبت کردن) به آنها نياز داريد. بنابراين اگر به چيزهايي مانند حروف تعريف و حروف اضافه دقت نکنيد، نخواهيد توانست آنها را به درستي در جملات خودتان بکار گيريد.

به همين دليل بعضي از زبان‌آموزان يک کتاب 300 صفحه‌اي را تمام مي‌کنند و همچنان با گرامر نسبتاً پايه‌اي هم مشکل داشته باشند. و باز به همين دليل است که حروف اضافه و حروف تعريف جزو سخت‌ترين قسمتهاي آموزش زبان انگليسي محسوب مي‌شوند. توصيه‌اي که در اينجا به زبان‌آموزان مي‌شود اين است که اگر مي‌خواهيد مهارتهاي خروجي (=نوشتن و مکالمه) خود را افزايش دهيد، بايد به خودتان ياد بدهيد که به کلمات گرامري توجه کنيد.

 

چگونه بخوانيم؟

در اينجا چند نکته‌ي جالب و مهم براي مطالعه‌ي متن‌هاي انگليسي به زبان‌آموزان توصيه مي‌شود:

1- هنگام برخورد با يک چيز جالب توجه (و نه واضح) توقف کنيد: مثلاً يک کلمه‌ي جديد، نحوه‌ي کاربرد يک کلمه، يک ساختار گرامري، يک حرف اضافه، يک حرف تعريف، ترتيب لغات و .... کمي وقت بگذاريد و فکر کنيد که چرا مثلاً در يک جمله‌ي خاص از حرف اضافه‌ي at به جاي on استفاده شده است و يا چرا از زمان حال کامل استفاده شده است در حاليکه شما انتظار گذشته‌ي ساده را داشتيد.

2- اگر در جمله‌اي عبارت مفيدي وجود دارد، از خودتان بپرسيد: آيا خودم مي‌توانم يک عبارت مشابه بسازم؟ آيا مي‌توانيد مثلاً حروف اضافه، حروف تعريف و زمانهاي صحيح را بکار ببريد؟ اگر مطمئن نيستيد، سعي کنيد يک عبارت مشابه را با صداي بلند و يا در ذهنتان بگوييد. هدف اين است که آن عبارت را در ذهنتان نگه داريد.

- هر جا لازم است (و يا اگر صرفاً دوست داريد)، از ديکشنري استفاده کنيد تا به تعاريف کلمات و نيز به جملات نمونه‌ي بيشتري دست پيدا کنيد.

4- جملات و عبارتهاي مفيد و کاربردي را در دفتر يادداشت خود (و يا در نرم‌افزارهايي مانند Supermemo) وارد کنيد. بدين ترتيب اطمينان خواهيد يافت که در آينده باز هم آنها را مرور خواهيد کرد.

 

اگر دوست نداريد هنگام خواندن توقف کنيد (تا مثلاً يک کلمه را در ديکشنري جستجو کنيد)، مي‌توانيد زير جملات جالب و مفيد خط بکشيد تا بعداً به آنها رسيدگي کنيد.

نکته‌ي مهم ديگري که بايد به آنها توجه کنيد اين است که شما مجبور نيستيد که هميشه از استراتژي بالا استفاده کنيد. خواندن به اين روش نسبتاً خسته کننده است، بنابراين اگر بعد از يک مطالعه‌ي طولاني خسته هستيد، اين روش را به کار نبريد. همچنين براي هر جمله به يک اندازه وقت صرف نکنيد. در بسياري از جملات، عبارتها و ساختارهايي که براي جمله‌سازي شما مفيد باشند وجود ندارد.

 

 

What's in a Preposition?

Josef Essberger

Prepositions can be divided into:

• one-word prepositions (eg at, into, on)
• complex prepositions (eg according to, in spite of)

The name "preposition" (pre + position) means "place before". Prepositions usually come *before* another word, usually a noun or noun phrase:

• noun (I will meet you IN *London*.)
• pronoun (Give it TO *her*.)
• noun phrase (I'm tired OF *all this work*.)
• gerund (verb in -ing form) (It crashed ON *landing*.)

If a preposition does not come before another word, it is still closely associated with another word:

• *Who* did you talk TO?
• TO *whom* did you talk?
• I talked TO *Jane*.

Notice that many prepositions can also be adverbs:

• He walked DOWN the hill. (preposition)
• Please sit DOWN. (adverb)

A few prepositions can also be conjunctions:

• Everyone came BUT Tara. (preposition)
• I asked her BUT she didn't answer. (conjunction)

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How many prepositions are there in English? It is not possible to give a definite answer, partly because complex prepositions are "open class", which means that new ones could be invented at any time. But for a list of almost all the one-word and complex prepositions in common use, see English Prepositions Listed which includes 370 example sentences.

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Many words are associated with a particular preposition. When you learn a new word, try to learn the preposition associated with it. A good dictionary usually gives you examples.

Here are some common verbs that are associated with a particular preposition:

• to agree WITH somebody
• to agree ABOUT a subject
• to agree ON a decision
• to agree TO a proposal
• to arrive AT/IN a place
• to ask FOR something (but to ask a question/the time/directions etc)
• to borrow something FROM somebody
• to depend ON somebody/something
• to explain something TO somebody
• to insist ON -ing
• to laugh AT somebody/something
• to listen TO somebody/something
• to participate IN something
• to pay FOR something
• to be rude TO somebody
• to shoot AT somebody/something
• to smile AT somebody
• to succeed IN something
• to talk TO somebody
• to talk WITH somebody (US)
• to worry ABOUT something
• to write TO somebody

Here are a few common expressions with particular prepositions:

• to be afraid OF somebody/something
• to be angry WITH somebody
• to be angry ABOUT something
• to be bad AT something
• to be clever AT something
• to be good AT something
• to be interested IN something
• to be kind TO somebody
• to be nice TO somebody

 

Listening: A good way to learn English

 

Everyone knows that there are four skills in learning a language, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. They are always related in terms of usage, and speaking is viewed by learners as the most desirable skill in face-to-face communication in the globalization era. However, what is the answer to the following questions?

• What do you have to do before you can speak?
• What does a child learn before he talks?
• What do we do before chatting?

Listen, of course!

Naturally, children begin listening to their parents when they are babies. They are often greeted, spoken to and admired without any response expected. Though nobody knows if the baby understands the spoken words, the process continues. Children automatically acquire such language over some time, and later on gradually produce it through actual experience. The production may be incomplete at first, but successful at last. That leads to speaking skill which is quite applicable to daily conversation.

In learning English, listening can help improve speaking considerably. Although it is the first of all skills, it is neither the easiest nor the most meaningless. We need to hear various types of English repeatedly and continuously if we want to communicate properly, meaningfully and naturally.

Why is listening good?

1. When listening, we are reviewing a lot of English usage such as vocabulary, grammatical structures, intonation, accent and our own interpretation.
2. We can learn new words and expressions by hearing them frequently.
3. Besides the English revision, general knowledge from news, features, or even advertising spots is certainly beneficial for regular listeners.
4. We can imitate what we hear and apply it with great confidence.
5. Listening can be a good "hobby" while we do other things such as cooking, ironing, exercising, relaxing etc. In other words, we have no wasted time at all.
6. Listening is also a great way to train our attention.

How can we listen to English?

Nowadays, radio cassette recorders are household appliances, but we often overlook their radio function. We can experience English language radio programmes almost anywhere in the world. They are usually picked up on FM bands and aired particularly for foreigners. Short wave radio programmes are another option. Two of the most easily found English language broadcasters are the BBC and Voice of America. Today, you can even access them by internet.

 

Five Tips on Translating Poetry

Know the poet. If you are lucky enough to pick a living poet to translate, write to him or her. Get to know the person; ask him or her questions about the poem. What was the poet thinking when writing the poem? What does the poet think the poem means? Is there any imagery or language that is repeated? Is there anything symbolic from his or her life? What does the poet think of poetry? The more you know about the poet and his or her life, the better able you are to understand the nuances of the poem. Be courteous and grateful. The poet is answering your questions to help you with your translation

If, however, you choose a poet who has passed on, your job is a little harder. Try and find out as much as you can about the poet's life. Most countries have national writer's associations. If they don't, check the web and university libraries and language departments. Maybe from there you can find other people who knew the poet or can help guide you. Build as many contacts as you can. Be familiar with the poet and you will get a sense for the poem

 Go for Grace. When you translate a poem, your job is to stay as close to the meaning as possible. That said, you also have artistic license to use (not abuse) the meaning to make a clear and graceful translation. Translating slag is an excellent example of when to use artistic license. Some slang has absolutely no meaning in another language. In fact, a direct translation would make the poem fail. In that case, turn the meaning of the slang into its equivalent. Remember, you want readers in your language to enjoy the poem, not marvel at how well you can directly translate words

 Be Wary. This tip is for those of you who think translating takes a few minutes’ tops. There are some great computer programs that are designed for translation. There are also some excellent dictionaries and phrase books. But do not rely on them to give you the end-all-be-all translation. You must do the footwork. You can use these computer programs and dictionary translations as a guide. They may help get to the bones of the poem but your job is to put heart and live language on those bones

 Take a Deep Breath. When you finish a translation, sit tight for a few days, maybe even a week, before you go over it. Take some time to think about something else, in your own language. Then come back and see where the gaps and the goodies are

Translating a poem is a lot like writing a poem yourself. You have to know what you want to say. You have to feel what you want to say. You have to be focused. There are a thousand other jobs that are easier, better paid, and eyesight-saving, but translating has its own glories. Putting poems into another language is one of the best ways to share culture, honor poets, and remind us that we can transcend geography. Do your best

By Jennifer Liddy

Five Tips on Translating Poetry

You've decided to translate a poem. Maybe you have been studying a foreign language your whole life and want to put your talents to good use. Maybe you just came back from vacation to an exotic country and fell in love with their national poet and you want to recall the romance. Either way, translating poetry is serious business and not to be taken lightly. Your job as a translator is not only to pass the meaning of the poem into another language but to respect and honor its spirit. I don't mean you need a séance with a thousand candles, begging the poem to breathe your page. I mean that there are some rules to respect when you translate a poem

 Stay Close to the Poem. Read the poem again and again until the words become second nature on your tongue. By doing this, you will be able to feel the rhythm of the poem. You will recognize the pace, the pauses, the beats, the swirls of energy. Write the poem in longhand and make ten copies. Stick these where you can see and read them. Try the bathroom, the kitchen cabinet, or the freezer door, leading to the Ben & Jerry's. These copies will familiarize you with the poem's grammatical structure: Where the adjectives are, where there is a break in tenses. Plus, if you put them on that package of Oreo's, it'll take you longer to gobble the bag down. You will have to read the poem first

زبانشناسی

How To Improve Speaking Skills In A New Language

Learners often hesitate to speak because they are afraid of pronouncing the words wrongly. In fact it is very difficult to correct a mistake in pronunciation later if you don't pay attention to it from the start. The advice is that you should try to pronounce the words right from the very first lessons. Be patient when pronouncing new words. If you make a constant mistake in pronunciation, you should record the right pronunciation of that word and listen over and over again so that you will be familiar with it.

You can find short stories in the language you are learning, in books or on the internet and read them aloud at home. In this way you can roughly judge how good your pronunciation is and gain more confidence when speaking to others later. You can also try to think in the language you are learning. It may sound crazy but speaking to yourself in a foreign language is very effective for your learning.

Of course the best way to improve your speaking skills is to talk with a native speaker. That also means the best language class is the one which has a native speaker as the teacher. The foreign teacher usually uses only the language being learnt in the class and refuses to speak in any other. Therefore you can become more familiar with the language you are studying because you are forced to speak in it.

Talking to a native speaker in your country is good, however, talking to a native in his own country is far better. If you can afford to travel to the country where the language that you are learning is spoken and stay there for some time, it's the fastest way to improve your speaking skills. When you are surrounded by a new language everyday and no one talks to you in your mother tongue, you have to try your best to speak in that language to survive! Besides being able to learn how people really talk in their daily lives, you can also enlarge your vision with new views and enrich your knowledge about a different culture

Michael Russell Your Independent guide to Languages